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The main constituents of exhaust gas after combustion are nitrogen (N2), carbondioxide (CO2), water (H2O), oxygen (O2), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen(H2). The concentrations of these components can be estimated from the chemicalformula of ideal combustion by applying the ratio between the intake air and thefuel (i.e., air-to-fuel ratio or excess air ratio) and the average composition of thefuel burned. Figure 1.1 shows the estimated concentrations of each component inexhaust gas from a gasoline engine, assuming the hydrogen-to-carbon ratio (y/x) offuel (CxHyOz) is 1.85 and the oxygen-to-carbon ratio (z/x) is 0.
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