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One of the most important considerations in understanding the performance capabilities
of a modern processor is the memory hierarchy. Unfortunately, as we have
seen, not all memory is created equal, and some types are far less efficient and
thus cheaper than others. To deal with this disparity, today’s computer systems
use a combination of memory types to provide the best performance at the best
cost. This approach is called hierarchical memory. As a rule, the faster memory
is, the more expensive it is per bit of storage. By using a hierarchy of memories,
each with different access speeds and storage capacities, a computer system can
exhibit performance above what would be possible without a combination of the
various types. The base types that normally constitute the hierarchical memory
system include registers, cache, main memory, and secondary memory.
Today’s computers each have a small amount of very high-speed memory,
called a cache, where data from frequently used memory locations may be temporarily
stored. This cache is connected to a much larger main memory, which is
typically a medium-speed memory. This memory is complemented by a very
large secondary memory, composed of a hard disk and various removable media.
By using such a hierarchical scheme, one can improve the effective access speed
of the memory, using only a small number of fast (and expensive) chips. This
allows designers to create a computer with acceptable performance at a reasonable
cost.
We classify memory based on its “distance” from the processor, with distance
measured by the number of machine cycles required for access. The closer memory
is to the processor, the faster it should be. As memory gets further from the
main processor, we can afford longer access times. Thus, slower technologies are
used for these memories, and faster technologies are used for memories closer to
the CPU. The better the technology, the faster and more expensive the memory
becomes. Thus, faster memories tend to be smaller than slower ones, due to cost.
The following terminology is used when referring to this memory hierarchy:
• Hit—The requested data resides in a given level of memory (typically, we are
concerned with the hit rate only for upper levels of memory).
• Miss—The requested data is not found in the given level of memory.
• Hit rate—The percentage of memory accesses found in a given level of memory.
• Miss rate—The percentage of memory accesses not found in a given level of
memory. Note: Miss Rate = 1 - Hit Rate.
• Hit time—The time required to access the requested information in a given
level of memory.
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