Finally, ADB-supported CESR analysis points to an array of underlying issues that depress enrollment
in secondary education. Many of these mirror issues in neighboring countries, and include: (i)
disparities in completion rates and academic preparedness from primary schooling; (ii) demand-side
factors such as poverty, financing and opportunity costs, language and other cultural factors, and
disabilities; and (iii) supply-side factors such as gaps in school coverage in remote areas and
inadequate financial and human resources. However, the analysis also demonstrates the extent to
which quality is integrally linked to access in Myanmar. In terms of household expenditure, high school
education presents the highest cost burden per student, while private tuition (largely driven by the
focus on rote-based learning and exams) is the largest component, comprising roughly 42% of
household expenditure on education. Additionally, CESR analysis (Table 6) indicates that although
direct costs are the leading reason for failure to complete primary school or to transition to middle
school, “lack of interest” is reported as the principal reason for dropout and noncompletion of
secondary grades. This suggests (among other factors) key issues with the perceived quality and
relevance of secondary education to the labor market and modern society. Such challenges are
elaborated in section III.D.