Chomsky’s arguments for LADLet us now consider some of the major argum translation - Chomsky’s arguments for LADLet us now consider some of the major argum Malay how to say

Chomsky’s arguments for LADLet us n

Chomsky’s arguments for LAD
Let us now consider some of the major arguments which Chomsky presents in support of his LAD theory. The four which will be considered are: (1) the peculiarity of grammar; (2) imperfect input data; (3) the irrelevance of intelligence; and (4) the ease and speed of child language acquisition.

1. PECULIARITY OF GRAMMAR. According to Chomsky (1967b: 6);
Deep structures seem to be very similar from language to language, and the rules that manipulate and interpret them also seem to be drawn from a very narrow class of conceivable formal operations. There is no a priori necessity for a language to be organized in this highly specific and most peculiar way. There is no sense of ‘simplicity’ in which this design for a language can be intelligibly described as ‘most simple.’ Nor is there any content to the claim that this design is somehow ‘logical’.

Because the grammar of every language is so peculiar, so un-simple, so un-logical, and yet so similar in the same aspects, Chomsky believes that it is necessary to postulate innate language knowledge in order to account for these facts.
One may question, as have many linguists, whether it is indeed the case that the nature of language is as Chomsky describes. Certainly, the Generative Semanticists and Case Grammarians would not agree that language is as un-logical as Chomsky believed. If, with such linguists, one does not believe that such a peculiar structure as Chomsky’s ‘Deep Structure’ exists, nor does one believe that grammars are organized in the peculiar manner as Chomsky contends (with syntax ‘primary’, etc.), then one does not have peculiar phenomena that especially require explanation in terms of innate language knowledge. Of course, even if grammars were not as peculiar as Chomsky contends, the learning of grammar must still be accounted for, and, in this regard, a theory of innate knowledge may be postulated. Such a theory, however, would have to be posited for reasons other than peculiarity. Given the doubt of other linguists concerning Chomsky’s grammar, and given the dubious psychological validity of that grammar (see Chapter 4), Chomsky’s ‘peculiarity’ argument is hardly a compelling one.
And, if grammar is not as peculiar as Chomsky contends, it may not be independent of other knowledge (mathematics, logic, music, etc.) as Chomsky holds. Structure dependent transformations and other general linguistic phenomena may occur in other domains of knowledge with the result that a more general cognitive capacity (rather than a specific knowledge capacity) may be hypothesized. Whether such a general cognitive capacity has at its base innate knowledge or not would still be an open question. The issue then shifts from how peculiar language knowledge is to be accounted for to how general cognitive knowledge is to be accounted for. It may then be argued whether the universality of this general cognitive knowledge is to be explained in Empiricist or Rationalist terms. The Empiricist might argue, as does Putnam (1967), that language originally was not the product of innate knowledge but the product of an invention of the mind, and that the reason why languages have so much in common is that the originally invented language spread (like the invention of the alphabet did) and that its most useful features and structures were retained by the borrowers. The Rationalist might object that ‘invention’ appears to be a magical explanation where something comes from nothing. On the other hand, the Empiricist might retort that if innate knowledge is attributed to humans, how is that knowledge to be accounted for in evolutionary terms? Would not the innate knowledge have to be experienced at some time in the human past? And, if so, would it not have to be said that such knowledge ‘comes from nothing’? Such issues are clearly far from resolution.

2. IMPERFECT INPUT DATA.
Chomsky (1967b) notes that children learn the grammar of their language despite having received language data that are ‘meager in scope’ and ‘degenerate in quality’ and despite those data being a ‘minute sample of the linguistic material that has been thoroughly mastered.’ He concludes that ‘Thus the child learns the principles of sentence formation and sentence interpretation on the basis of a corpus of data that consists, in a large measure, of sentences that deviate in form from the idealized structures defined by the grammar that he develops.’ (p. 6 emphasis added) He then argues that children could not learn the grammar that they do, i.e. a system composed of rules that do not reflect those imperfections, unless they had the assistance of innate knowledge. Chomsky believes that Empiricists cannot explain such a phenomenon for they must hold that since defective language experience serves as input then the resulting grammar must be similarly defective.
Labov (1970a), however, has argued that ‘The ungrammatically of every-day speech appears to be a myth with no basis in actual fact. In the various empirical studies which we have conducted... the proportion of truly ungrammatical and ill-formed sentences falls to less than two percent.’ (p. 42) Other research since then has also supported Labov’s view. Newport (1975), for example, in a long term study with 15 mothers reports an incidence of only 1 ungrammatical utterance in 1500. While Chomsky might revise his original claim regarding the incidence of ungrammatical speech, he nonetheless insists that any degree of ungrammaticality poses a serious problem. Chomsky (1975a: fn. 6) has argued:

... suppose that a scientist were presented with data, 2 per cent of which are wrong (but he doesn’t know which 2 per cent). Then, he faces some serious difficulties, which would be incomparably more serious if the data were simply uncontrolled experience, rather than the result of controlled experiment devised for its relevance to theoretical hypotheses. The fact that these difficulties do not seem to arise for the language learner, who is, of course, faced with degenerate data of experience, requires explanation.

I myself doubt that if only 2 per cent of data were degenerate that learners would have much difficulty. Learners tend to simply discard that which they do not understand. And, unless the 2 per cent of the data in question always involved the same linguistic problems (which is quite unlikely), then we would expect correct instances of the data to appear in the future for the learner to process.
As to Chomsky’s claim that only a ‘minute sample’ of language is experienced, one may ask whether there is reason to believe that the ‘minute sample’ does not actually contain all of the linguistic structures in question, i.e. is the minute sample an adequate sample of linguistic structures although it represents only a small proportion of the total number of sentences? One wonders what particular linguistic structures Chomsky has in mind such that they may be learned even though no instances of them are reflected in the sentences which have been experienced.

3. THE IRRELEVANCE OF INTELLIGENCE.
Related to Chomsky’s peculiarity of grammar argument is his contention that language learning is essentially independent of intelligence. In support of this thesis, he argues that grammar is peculiar not logical, hence, he implies, since it is not a direct function of rational operating intelligence, it must be a function of innate language knowledge. He further argues that ‘... vast differences in intelligence have only a small effect on resulting competence (knowledge of grammar)’ (Chomsky, 1967b: 3). Since the issue of peculiarity which concerns the first argument has already been discussed in a previous section, let us consider this further argument regarding vast differences and small effect. The basis of that argument evidently is as follows: If intelligence is relevant to language acquisition, then more intelligent people should acquire a greater competence. However, greater and lesser intelligent persons acquire nearly the same competence. Since different degrees of intelligence do not affect competence, the variable of intelligence is irrelevant to the acquisition of competence. (What Chomsky goes on then to argue is that since the uniformity of competence is not due to intelligence, it must be due to some other agency, which, for him, is innate language knowledge.)
This argument of Chomsky has one major weakness. It is that Chomsky supposes that increases in intelligence beyond that of low intelligence should result in greater or improved competence. In other words, he assumes that an optimum competence cannot be acquired through low intelligence. This assumption is entirely unwarranted since it may well be the case that low intelligence is all that is necessary for the acquisition of competence. After all, both high and low (but not defective) intelligence people learn to drive cars, to do arithmetic, etc. Yet, we do not generally consider such observations as evidence that intelligence is irrelevant to the learning of those tasks. Lenneberg (1967) made observations which directly support this interpretation. Concerning the relationship of intelligence to language acquisition, he said,
The study of the mongoloid population, as well as that of additional cases of mental retardation, indicates that there is a certain ‘IQ threshold value’ that varies with age and must be attained for language to be acquired. Individuals below this threshold have varying degrees of [language] primitivity... It is noteworthy that this threshold is relatively low. (pp. 310-11)

Incidentally, it might be noted that it is not necessary for Chomsky to deny a role to intelligence in order that he posit the existence of innate knowledge. After all, for many eminent innatists, the operation of some sort of intelligence in terms of reasoning or logic is essential for bringing out and making functional ideas which were innate. (see
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Chomsky dan hujah LADMarilah kita kini mempertimbangkan beberapa hujahan utama yang Chomsky menyatakan menyokong teori LAD. Empat yang akan dipertimbangkan adalah: (1) dalam ciri tatabahasa; (2) tidak sempurna input data; (3) irrelevance perisikan; dan (4) kemudahan dan kelajuan pemerolehan bahasa kanak-kanak.1. CIRI TATABAHASA. Menurut Chomsky (1967b: 6);Struktur dalam seolah-olah sangat serupa daripada satu bahasa kepada bahasa, dan segala peraturan yang memanipulasi dan mentafsirkan mereka juga seolah-olah Diambil daripada kelas yang amat sempit kemungkinan operasi formal. Terdapat tiada priori keperluan bagi sebuah bahasa yang dianjurkan dengan cara ini amat khusus dan tempahan khas. Ada yang tak kenal erti 'kesederhanaan' di mana Reka bentuk ini untuk bahasa boleh intelligibly ditakrifkan sebagai 'Tempahan mudah.' Tidak ada kandungan apa-apa tuntutan, Reka bentuk ini yang entah bagaimana 'logik'.Kerana nahu setiap bahasa jadi khas, jadi tidak mudah, jadi tidak logik, dan lagi jadi serupa dalam aspek-aspek sama, Chomsky percaya bahawa ia adalah perlu untuk postulate pengetahuan Bahasa semula jadi untuk akaun untuk fakta-fakta.Salah satu mungkin soalan, kerana mempunyai ramai ahli bahasa, sama ada ia memang berlaku bahawa sifat bahasa adalah seperti yang tertera Chomsky. Sudah tentu, Generative Semanticists yang menyangkut tata bahasa kes tidak bersetuju bahawa bahasa adalah seperti tidak logik kerana percaya Chomsky. Jika, dengan juru bahasa tersebut, satu tidak percaya bahawa itu Khas struktur kerana Chomsky's 'dalam struktur' wujud, atau tidak seseorang percaya bahawa grammars yang dianjurkan dalam cara khas sebagai Chomsky (swt) (dengan sintaks 'utama', dll), maka seseorang tidak mempunyai fenomena khas yang terutamanya memerlukan penjelasan dari segi pengetahuan Bahasa semula jadi. Sudah tentu, walaupun grammars tidak Khas Chomsky (swt), pembelajaran tatabahasa mesti masih diambil kira bagi, dan, dalam hal ini, teori pengetahuan semula jadi yang boleh dijangka. Teori tersebut, Walau bagaimanapun, perlu mengemukakan sebab-sebab selain daripada ciri. Diberikan keraguan juru bahasa lain mengenai Chomsky, tatabahasa, dan memandangkan diragui kesahihan psikologi tatabahasa itu (lihat bab 4), Chomsky's 'ciri' hujah adalah sukar menambat hati satu.Dan, jika tatabahasa bukanlah Khas Chomsky (swt), ia mungkin tidak bebas dari ilmu lain (matematik, logik, muzik, dll) kerana memegang Chomsky. Transformasi bergantung struktur dan lain-lain fenomena Linguistik am mungkin berlaku dalam domain lain pengetahuan dengan keputusan bahawa kapasiti kognitif lebih umum (bukannya kapasiti pengetahuan khusus) mungkin akan andaian dibuat. Sama ada apa-apa am kognitif kapasiti mempunyai asas pengetahuan semula jadi atau tidak masih akan menjadi satu soalan terbuka. Isu itu kemudian beralih daripada bagaimana pengetahuan Bahasa khas untuk diambilkira untuk umum bagaimana kognitif pengetahuan adalah untuk diambil kira. Ia mungkin kemudian dikatakan sama ada keuniversalan pengetahuan kognitif umum ini dijangka akan dijelaskan dalam terma Rationalist atau Empiricist. Empiricist yang mungkin berhujah, kerana tidak Putnam (1967), bahawa bahasa asalnya tidak hasil daripada pengetahuan yang semula jadi tetapi hasil ciptaan minda, dan bahawa sebab mengapa Bahasa mempunyai banyak persamaan bahawa dalam Bahasa asalnya dicipta merebak (seperti ciptaan abjad pula) dan yang paling berguna ciri-ciri dan struktur telah dikekalkan oleh Peminjam. Tasik beberapa meter dari dalam mungkin membantah bahawa 'ciptaan' nampaknya penjelasan yang ajaib di mana sesuatu dari apa-apa. Di sisi lain, Empiricist yang mungkin retort yang jika pengetahuan semula jadi adalah disebabkan oleh manusia, apakah pengetahuan itu untuk diambil kira dalam evolusi? Tidak pengetahuan semula jadi akan menjadi berpengalaman pada suatu ketika dahulu manusia? Dan, jika demikian, ia tidak perlu dikatakan bahawa pengetahuan tersebut 'datang dari apa-apa'? Isu-isu itu adalah jelas jauh daripada resolusi.2. TIDAK SEMPURNA INPUT DATA.Chomsky (1967b) Nota-nota bahawa kanak-kanak belajar nahu Bahasa mereka walaupun setelah menerima data bahasa yang 'tidak seberapa dalam skop' dan 'degenerate kualiti' dan walaupun data tersebut sebagai 'minit sampel bahan linguistik yang telah benar-benar telah menguasai.' Beliau menyimpulkan bahawa 'oleh itu kanak-kanak belajar prinsip-prinsip pembentukan ayat dan Tafsiran ayat berdasarkan korpus yang data yang terdiri daripada, ukuran besar, ayat yang menyimpang dalam bentuk dari struktur idealized ditakrifkan oleh tatabahasa yang dia.' (ms. 6 penekanan ditambah) beliau kemudian berpendapat bahawa kanak-kanak tidak dapat belajar tatabahasa yang mereka lakukan, iaitu sistem yang terdiri daripada kaedah-kaedah yang tidak menggambarkan ketidaksempurnaan itu, melainkan mereka telah dibantu pengetahuan semula jadi. Chomsky percaya bahawa empiris tidak boleh menjelaskan satu fenomena kerana mereka harus memegang bahawa kerana pengalaman rosak Bahasa berfungsi sebagai input kemudian hasilnya tatabahasa mestilah begitu juga rosak.Labov (1970a), bagaimanapun, telah berhujah bahawa ' yang ungrammatically setiap hari ucapan yang muncul untuk menjadi mitos dengan tidak sebenarnya. Dalam pelbagai kajian empirikal yang kami menjalankan... bahagian ayat yang benar-benar ungrammatical dan diformatkan jatuh kurang daripada dua peratus.' (p. 42) penyelidikan sejak itu juga menyokong pandangan Labov ini. Newport (1975), sebagai contoh, dalam kajian jangka panjang dengan 15 ibu melaporkan kejadian sebuah ucapan ungrammatical hanya 1 dalam 1500. Manakala Chomsky mungkin menyemak semula tuntutan asal-Nya mengenai kejadian ungrammatical ucapan, beliau bagaimanapun menegaskan bahawa mana-mana tahap ungrammaticality menimbulkan masalah yang serius. Chomsky (1975a: fn. 6) telah menyatakan:... katakan bahawa seorang saintis telah dibentangkan dengan data, 2 peratus daripadanya adalah salah (tetapi dia tidak tahu yang 2 peratus). Kemudian, beliau menghadapi beberapa masalah yang serius, yang akan jauh lebih serius jika data pengalaman semata-mata tidak terkawal, dan bukannya hasil daripada eksperimen terkawal yang dicipta untuk kegunaannya dalam teori hipotesis. Hakikat bahawa kesukaran ini seolah-olah tidak timbul untuk pelajar Bahasa, yang adalah, sudah tentu, berhadapan dengan degenerate data pengalaman, memerlukan penjelasan.Saya sendiri meragui bahawa jika hanya 2 peratus daripada data telah degenerate bahawa pelajar akan mempunyai banyak kesulitan. Pelajar cenderung untuk hanya membuang apa yang mereka tidak faham. Dan, kecuali 2 peratus data berkenaan sentiasa terlibat sama Linguistik masalah (yang agak mungkin), kemudian kami inginkan betul contoh data yang muncul pada masa hadapan bagi pelajar untuk memproses.Tentang tuntutan Chomsky's bahawa hanya 'minit contoh' Bahasa berpengalaman, seseorang mungkin bertanya sama ada terdapat sebab untuk mempercayai bahawa 'sampel minit' tidak benar-benar mengandungi semua dalam soalan struktur linguistik, iaitu sampel minit contoh struktur linguistik yang mencukupi walaupun ia mewakili hanya sebahagian kecil daripada jumlah bilangan ayat? Satu tertanya-tanya apakah struktur Linguistik tertentu yang Chomsky yang ada dalam fikiran supaya mereka boleh belajar Walaupun tiada contoh yang ditunjukkan dalam ayat-ayat yang telah mengalami.3. IRRELEVANCE PERISIKAN.Berkaitan dengan ciri Chomsky di hujah tatabahasa adalah pendapat Nya bahawa pembelajaran bahasa adalah pada asasnya bebas perisikan. Dalam tesis ini, beliau berpendapat bahawa tatabahasa adalah khas tidak logik, oleh yang demikian, beliau membayangkan, kerana ianya tidak langsung fungsi perisikan operasi yang rasional, ia hendaklah fungsi pengetahuan Bahasa semula jadi. Beliau seterusnya berpendapat bahawa '... luas perbezaan kecerdasan mempunyai hanya kesan yang kecil terhadap hasil kecekapan (pengetahuan tentang tatabahasa)' (Chomsky, 1967b: 3). Sejak isu ciri yang berkenaan hujah pertama telah dibincangkan dalam bahagian sebelumnya, marilah kita mempertimbangkan hujah ini selanjutnya mengenai perbezaan luas dan kesan kecil. Asas hujah itu ternyata adalah seperti berikut: Jika perisikan berkaitan dengan pemerolehan bahasa, maka orang-orang yang lebih cerdas perlu memperoleh kecekapan yang lebih tinggi. Walau bagaimanapun, orang-orang bijak yang lebih besar dan lebih rendah memperoleh hampir sama kecekapan. Kerana darjat yang berbeza kecerdasan tidak menjejaskan kecekapan, pembolehubah perisikan tidak relevan dengan pengambilan kecekapan. (Apa yang Chomsky berlaku di ketika itu untuk berdebat adalah bahawa sejak keseragaman kecekapan tersebut bukan disebabkan oleh kecerdasan, ia mesti menjadi disebabkan oleh beberapa agensi lain, yang, baginya, adalah pengetahuan Bahasa semula jadi.)Ini hujah Chomsky mempunyai satu kelemahan utama. Ia adalah bahawa supposes Chomsky bahawa peningkatan kecerdasan daripada kecerdasan rendah perlu menghasilkan kecekapan yang lebih besar atau lebih baik. Dalam erti kata lain, beliau menganggap bahawa kecekapan yang optimum tidak dapat diperolehi melalui kecerdasan yang rendah. Andaian ini adalah tidak berasas sama sekali kerana ia juga mungkin berlaku bahawa kecerdasan rendah adalah semua yang diperlukan untuk pembelian kecekapan. Lagipun, kedua-dua kecerdasan tinggi dan rendah (tetapi tidak rosak) orang belajar memandu kereta, Adakah ilmu kira-kira, dan lain-lain. Namun, secara amnya dianggap tidak pemerhatian sedemikian sebagai keterangan perisikan yang tidak relevan untuk pembelajaran tugas tersebut. Lenneberg (1967) membuat cerapan yang menyokong tafsiran ini. Mengenai hubungan kecerdasan kepada pemerolehan bahasa, beliau berkata,Kajian penduduk mongoloid, serta daripada kes-kes tambahan rencatan mental, menunjukkan bahawa terdapat tertentu 'IQ ' Threshold 'nilai' yang berbeza-beza dengan usia dan mesti dicapai untuk bahasa perlu diperolehi. Individu di bawah had minimum ini mempunyai darjah yang berbeza-beza daripada [Bahasa] primitivity... Memang patut diberi perhatian bahawa had minimum ini adalah agak rendah. (MS 310-11)Secara kebetulan, ia mungkin menyatakan bahawa ia adalah tidak perlu untuk Chomsky untuk menafikan peranan kepada perisikan supaya beliau posit kewujudan pengetahuan semula jadi. Lagipun, bagi banyak innatists terkemuka, operasi beberapa jenis kecerdasan dari segi logik atau pemikiran adalah penting untuk membawa keluar dan membuat idea-idea praktikal yang semula jadi. (lihat
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