1. Imminent retirement of key perso

1. Imminent retirement of key personnel.
2. Need for innovation to compete in a dynamic, challenging business
environment.
3. Need for internal efficiencies in order to reduce costs and effort (e.g.,
time to market a new product).
The resources and skills required to develop a KM strategy depend on the
size and complexity of the organizational unit and on the depth of information
gathering and analysis. The ideal mix of skills on the KM strategy team
would be a KM expert, access to people who are knowledgeable about the
organization, and a KM advocate who will “sell” the strategy to the senior
member of management who mandated the strategy development.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
A KM strategy is a general, issue-based approach to defining operational
strategy and objectives with specialized KM principles and approaches (Srikantajah
and Koenig, 2000). The result is a way of identifying how the organization
can best leverage its knowledge resources. Once this fundamental KM
strategy is defined, baselining and technology options may be explored. A KM
strategy helps address the following questions:
1. Which KM approach, or set of KM approaches, will bring the most
value to the organization?
2. How can the organization prioritize alternatives when any one or several
of the alternatives are appealing and resources are limited?
Once the KM strategy is defined, the organization will have a road map that
can be used to identify and prioritize KM initiatives, tools, and approaches in
such a way as to support long-term business objectives. The strategy is used
to define a plan of action by undertaking a gap analysis. The gap analysis
involves establishing the current and desired states of knowledge resources and
KM levers. Specific projects are then defined in order to address specific gaps
that were identified and agreed upon as being high-priority areas.
A good KM strategy possesses the following components:
KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 251
1. An articulated business strategy and objectives
a. Products or services.
b. Target customers.
c. Preferred distribution or delivery channels.
d. Characterization of regulatory environment.
e. Mission or vision statement.
2. A description of knowledge-based business issues
a. Need for collaboration.
b. Need to level performance variance.
c. Need for innovation.
d. Need to address information overload.
3. An inventory of available knowledge resources
a. Knowledge capital: tacit and explicit knowledge, know-how, expertise,
experience in the minds of individuals and in communities or
embedded in work routines, processes, procedures, roles, artifacts
such as documents or reports.
b. Social capital: culture, trust, context, the informal networks, and reciprocity
(e.g., willingness to experiment and take risks, or able to fail
without fear of repercussions).
c. Infrastructure capital: physical knowledge resources; e.g., LAN/
WAN, file servers, intranets, PCs, applications, physical workspaces
and offices, and the organizational structure.
4. An analysis of recommended knowledge leverage points that describes
what can be done with the above-identified knowledge and knowledge
artifacts and that lists KM projects that can be undertaken with the
intent to maximize ROI and business value; for example:
a. Collect artifacts and exploit them (e.g., best practices database,
lessons learned database).
b. Store for future use (e.g., data warehouses, intelligence gathering for
specific issue/problem, data mining, text mining).
c. Focus on connecting—connect knowers to each other and to a
problem through communities of practice or expertise location
systems. Hypothesize to carry out scenario planning, informal
cross-pollination to produce new insights and breakthrough
thinking.
The major steps involved in developing a KM strategy are to first understand
the organization in terms of its current state (“as is”) and its desired
business objectives (“to be”). The analysis of the difference between the two
states is often referred to as a gap analysis, and the means of getting from the
“as is” to the “to be” state is often represented in the form of a KM strategic
road map. The road map typically represents a three- to five-year strategy with
clear milestones or targets to be achieved throughout that time.
The current or baseline state of the organization is assessed using information
gathering from a variety of sources such as key documents (e.g., annual
report) and interviewing key stakeholders (e.g., senior managers, human
resources, information technology, and major business unit managers). It is at
252 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
this point that existing KM initiatives will also be identified in the form of a
knowledge audit or inventory.
Knowledge Audit
A knowledge audit service identifies the core information and knowledge
needs and uses in an organization. It also identifies gaps, duplications,
and flows and how they contribute to business goals. A knowledge inventory
(sometimes called an information audit or a knowledge map) is a practical
way of coming to grips with “knowing what you know.” This inventory is
usually performed by applying the principles of information resources management
(IRM). A knowledge audit identifies owners, users, uses, and key
attributes of core knowledge assets. Willard (1993) discusses five key activities
of IRM:
1. Identification: What information is there? How is it identified and
coded?
2. Ownership: Who is responsible for different information entities and
coordination?
3. Cost and Value: What is a basic model for making judgments on purchase
and use?
4. Development: How can we increase the value of information or stimulate
demand?
5. Exploitation: What is the best way to proactively maximize the value
for money?
A knowledge audit is often carried out in conjunction with a knowledge
management assessment, which provides a baseline on which one can develop
a knowledge management strategy (Skyrme, 2001). This typically involves
taking stock of current KM capabilities and is often carried out as part of a
KM strategy formulation exercise.
A knowledge audit can produce the following types of results:
_ Identification of core knowledge assets and flows—who creates, who
uses.
_ Identification of gaps in information and knowledge needed to manage the
business effectively.
_ Areas of information policy and ownership that need improving.
_ Opportunities to reduce information-handling costs.
_ Opportunities to improve coordination and access to commonly needed
information.
_ A clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to business
results.
An example from Northrop-Grumman is provided in the accompanying
vignette.
KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 253
254 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
NORTHROP-GRUMMAN
Northrop-Grumman2 faced consolidation and downsizing during the late
1990s. The Air Combat Systems (ACS) group in particular was in danger
of losing the expertise it needed to support and maintain a complex machine
that would be flying—carrying precious lives and cargo—for years to come.
So ACS instituted KM procedures designed to capture the so-called tacit
knowledge, or know-how and experience, with the B-2, locked in its employees’
heads. But before designing a program, ACS wanted to find out what
barriers, if any, prevented employees from sharing knowledge with their
peers. With a good picture of knowledge culture attitudes, ACS would then
have a better road map for designing a unitwide KM program. It conducted
a knowledge audit, surveying employees about their knowledge-sharing
habits, polling nearly 5000 employees with a 97-question survey (KM2) to
determine their knowledge needs, sharing practices, and prejudices. The
survey asked questions such as, “From your perspective, to what extent is
the knowledge that you and your team generate reused by other teams?”
This not only highlighted ACS’s readiness for a formal KM effort but also
pointed out areas where sharing was not happening. The Delphi Group was
hired to conduct the audit and derive a baseline pulse of the unit’s
knowledge-sharing culture. Participation was voluntary—employees were
given a free lunch for giving 30 minutes of their time. The survey response
rate was better than 70% (typically, mail-in surveys return a 10–30%
response). Delphi consultants analyzed the preliminary results and targeted
125 employees for face-to-face follow-up interviews.
ACS had established a 10-person KM team to identify subject matter
experts and capture the content of their expertise. After creating about 100
knowledge cells and identifying 200 subject matter experts within those cells,
the KM council turned its attention to knowledge capture. The team created
websites for each knowledge cell and logged information about the knowledge
experts into an expert locator system called Xref, short for crossreference.
Using Xref, employees can search for information in any number
of ways, including by employee name, program affiliation, or skill area. If,
for example, the B-2 landing gear is locking up, one can find the landing
gear expert through Xref. The knowledge audit helped ensure that this centralized
database not only would be useful but would actually be used.
The results of the knowledge audit confirmed that employees were eager
to share their knowledge in an automated, centralized system but that challenges,
such as integrating the systems across lines of business, remained.
The willingness of employees to participate in systems intended to minimize
the impact of their own eventual layoff is, of course, highly dubious. Other
key findings showed that employees recognized the value of their fellow
employees’ expertise; they spent at least eight frustrating hours each week
looking for information they needed to do their job (costing $150 million
annually); only 6% of their knowledge was reused by others; and 31%
NORTHROP-GRUMMAN—Continued
A knowledge management program or sys

Results (English) 1:

1. Imminent retirement of key personnel.2. Need for innovation to compete in a dynamic, challenging businessenvironment.3. Need for internal efficiencies in order to reduce costs and effort (e.g.,time to market a new product).The resources and skills required to develop a KM strategy depend on thesize and complexity of the organizational unit and on the depth of informationgathering and analysis. The ideal mix of skills on the KM strategy teamwould be a KM expert, access to people who are knowledgeable about theorganization, and a KM advocate who will "sell" the strategy to the seniormember of management who mandated the strategy development.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGYA KM strategy is a general, issue-based approach to defining operationalstrategy and objectives with specialized KM principles and approaches (Srikantajahand Koenig, 2000). The result is a way of identifying how the organizationcan best leverage its knowledge resources. Once this fundamental KMstrategy is defined, baselining and technology options may be explored. A KMstrategy helps address the following questions:1. Which KM approach, or set of KM approaches, will bring the mostvalue to the organization?2. How can the organization prioritize alternatives when any one or severalof the alternatives are appealing and resources are limited?Once the KM strategy is defined, the organization will have a road map thatcan be used to identify and prioritize KM initiatives, tools, and approaches insuch a way as to support long-term business objectives. The strategy is usedto define a plan of action by undertaking a gap analysis. The gap analysisinvolves establishing the current and desired states of knowledge resources andKM levers. Specific projects are then defined in order to address specific gapsthat were identified and agreed upon as being high-priority areas.A good KM strategy possesses the following components:KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 2511. An articulated business strategy and objectivesa. Products or services.b. Target customers.c. Preferred distribution or delivery channels.d. Characterization of regulatory environment.e. Mission or vision statement.2. A description of knowledge-based business issuesa. Need for collaboration.b. Need to level performance variance.c. Need for innovation.d. Need to address information overload.3. An inventory of available knowledge resourcesa. Knowledge capital: tacit and explicit knowledge, know-how, expertise,experience in the minds of individuals and in communities orembedded in work routines, processes, procedures, roles, artifactssuch as documents or reports.b. Social capital: culture, trust, context, the informal networks, and reciprocity(e.g., willingness to experiment and take risks, or able to failwithout fear of repercussions).c. Infrastructure capital: physical knowledge resources; e.g., LAN/WAN, file servers, intranets, PCs, applications, physical workspacesand offices, and the organizational structure.4. An analysis of recommended knowledge leverage points that describeswhat can be done with the above-identified knowledge and knowledgeartifacts and that lists KM projects that can be undertaken with theintent to maximize ROI and business value; for example:a. Collect artifacts and exploit them (e.g., best practices database,lessons learned database).b. Store for future use (e.g., data warehouses, intelligence gathering forspecific issue/problem, data mining, text mining).c. Focus on connecting—connect knowers to each other and to aproblem through communities of practice or expertise locationsystems. Hypothesize to carry out scenario planning, informalcross-pollination to produce new insights and breakthroughthinking.The major steps involved in developing a KM strategy are to first understandthe organization in terms of its current state ("as is") and its desiredbusiness objectives ("to be"). The analysis of the difference between the twostates is often referred to as a gap analysis, and the means of getting from the"as is" to the "to be" state is often represented in the form of a KM strategicroad map. The road map typically represents a three-to five-year strategy withclear milestones or targets to be achieved throughout that time.The current or baseline state of the organization is assessed using informationgathering from a variety of sources such as key documents (e.g., annualreport) and interviewing key stakeholders (e.g., senior managers, humanresources, information technology, and major business unit managers). It is at252 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICEthis point that existing KM initiatives will also be identified in the form of aknowledge audit or inventory.Knowledge AuditA knowledge audit service identifies the core information and knowledgeneeds and uses in an organization. It also identifies gaps, duplications,and flows and how they contribute to business goals. A knowledge inventory(sometimes called an information audit or a knowledge map) is a practicalway of coming to grips with "knowing what you know." This inventory isusually performed by applying the principles of information resources management(IRM). A knowledge audit identifies owners, users, uses, and keyattributes of core knowledge assets. Willard (1993) discusses five key activitiesof IRM:1. Identification: What information is there? How is it identified andcoded?2. Ownership: Who is responsible for different information entities andcoordination?3. Cost and Value: What is a basic model for making judgments on purchaseand use?4. Development: How can we increase the value of information or stimulatedemand?5. Exploitation: What is the best way to proactively maximize the valuefor money?A knowledge audit is often carried out in conjunction with a knowledgemanagement assessment, which provides a baseline on which one can developa knowledge management strategy (Skyrme, 2001). This typically involvestaking stock of current KM capabilities and is often carried out as part of aKM strategy formulation exercise.A knowledge audit can produce the following types of results:_ Identification of core knowledge assets and flows—who creates, whouses._ Identification of gaps in information and knowledge needed to manage thebusiness effectively._ Areas of information policy and ownership that need improving._ Opportunities to reduce information-handling costs._ Opportunities to improve coordination and access to commonly neededinformation._ A clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to businessresults.An example from Northrop-Grumman is provided in the accompanyingvignette.KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 253254 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICENORTHROP-GRUMMANNorthrop-Grumman2 faced consolidation and downsizing during the late1990s. The Air Combat Systems (ACS) group in particular was in dangerof losing the expertise it needed to support and maintain a complex machinethat would be flying—carrying precious lives and cargo—for years to come.So ACS instituted KM procedures designed to capture the so-called tacitknowledge, or know-how and experience, with the B-2, locked in its employees 'heads. But before designing a program, ACS wanted to find out whatbarriers, if any, prevented employees from sharing knowledge with theirpeers. With a good picture of knowledge culture attitudes, ACS would thenhave a better road map for designing a unitwide KM program. It conducteda knowledge audit, surveying employees about their knowledge-sharinghabits, polling nearly 5000 employees with a 97-question survey (KM2) todetermine their knowledge needs, sharing practices, and prejudices. Thesurvey asked questions such as, "From your perspective, to what extent isthe knowledge that you and your team generate reused by other teams? "This not only highlighted ACS's readiness for a formal KM effort but alsopointed out areas where sharing was not happening. The Delphi Group washired to conduct the audit and derive a baseline pulse of the unit'sknowledge-sharing culture. Participation was voluntary—employees weregiven a free lunch for giving 30 minutes of their time. The survey responserate was better than 70% (typically, mail-in surveys return a 10–30%response). Delphi consultants analyzed the preliminary results and targeted125 employees for face-to-face follow-up interviews.ACS had established a 10-person KM team to identify subject matterexperts and capture the content of their expertise. After creating about 100knowledge cells and identifying to subject matter experts within those cells,the KM council turned its attention to knowledge capture. The team createdwebsites for each knowledge cell and logged information about the knowledgeexperts into an expert locator system called Xref, short for crossreference.Using Xref, employees can search for information in any numberof ways, including by employee name, program affiliation, or skill area. If,for example, the B-2 landing gear is locking up, one can find the landinggear expert through Xref. The knowledge audit helped ensure that this centralizeddatabase not only would be useful but would actually be used.The results of the knowledge audit confirmed that employees were eagerto share their knowledge in an automated, centralized system but that challenges,such as integrating the systems across lines of business, remained.The willingness of employees to participate in systems intended to minimizethe impact of their own eventual layoff is, of course, highly dubious. Otherkey findings showed that employees recognized the value of their fellowemployees ' expertise; they spent at least eight frustrating hours each weeklooking for information they needed to do their job (costing $150 millionannually); only 6s of their knowledge was reused by others; and 31%NORTHROP-GRUMMAN—ContinuedA knowledge management program or sys

Results (English) 3:

1。迫在眉睫的关键人员退休
2。创新竞争中的一个动态的需要，具有挑战性的业务环境

3。为了内部效率降低成本和精力需要（例如，
上市时间新产品）。
的资源和技能发展所需的知识管理战略依赖
大小和组织单元的复杂性和深度信息
收集和分析。技巧的知识管理战略团队
理想搭配将KM专家，访问的人谁是对组织知识和公里
，主张谁会“卖”策略的高级管理人员谁授权
发展战略。一公里
战略是一个通用的知识管理战略
，基于问题的方法来定义操作
战略和目标与专业化知识管理的原则和方法（srikantajah
和Koenig，2000）。结果是一种识别组织如何能最好地利用其知识资源
。一旦这个基本公里
策略定义，基线和技术选择可以探索。一公里
策略有助于解决以下问题：
1。KM方法，或一套KM的方法，会给组织带来最
价值？
2。如何组织优先的选择时，任何一个或几个
的替代品的吸引力和资源是有限的？
一旦知识管理战略的定义，该组织将有一个路线图，
可以用来识别和区分知识管理的举措，工具，和方法
这样的方式来支持长期业务目标。使用策略
进行差距分析，确定行动计划。差距分析
涉及建立电流和所需的知识资源和
公里杠杆状态。具体项目是指为解决具体的差距
被确定和商定为高优先领域。
好公里策略具有以下组件：
知识管理策略和度量251
1。一个清晰的业务策略和目标
A.产品或服务的目标客户。
B。C优先分配或交付渠道

。监管环境D.表征。
E.使命或愿景声明
2。描述知识的业务问题
A.需要合作。B.需要水平方差
。
C.需要创新。
D.需要解决信息过载
3。一个可用的知识资源和知识资本存量
：隐性和显性知识，知识，专业知识，在个人的头脑和

嵌入在社区或工作程序，过程，程序，角色经验，文物
如文件或报告。
B.社会资本：文化，信任，背景下，非正式的网络，