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Electrochemical stripping analysis has long been recognizedas a powerful technique for trace heavy metal detectionin environmental samples. Its remarkable sensitivity isattributed to the combination of an effective preconcentrationstep with pulse measurement techniques that generatesan extremely favorable signal-to-background ratio. Twoelectrode systems, the mercury film electrode and the hangingmercury drop electrode, have been traditionallyemployed for achieving high reproducibility and sensitivityof the stripping technique [1–3]. The excellent performancesof mercury-based electrodes are due to their uniqueability to preconcentrate target metals during the accumulationstep [4]. Using anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV),the metals are cathodically preconcentrated into the mercuryelectrode by amalgam formation and then strippedout of the electrode by applying an anodic potential scan(e.g. Cd, Pb, and Zn) [5]. In certain cases, where the metalsform intermetallic compounds, react irreversibly or cannotform an amalgam (e.g. Co and Ni), the adsorptive cathodicstripping protocol is employed. A complexing agent likedimethylglyoxime (DMG) is added to the measuring solution,forming a complex with the target metal. This complexis then subsequently accumulated onto the electrodesurface and stripped off voltammetrically or chronopotentiometrically[6–9]. The growing needs for on-site monitoring of prioritymetal pollutants have led to the development of flow strippingsystems [10–13] and more recently to the introductionof hand-held metal analysers [14,15]. A more attractivein situ approach is to immerse the stripping electrodedirectly in the natural matrix (e.g. natural waters or industrialwastes). However, despite the excellent performance ofmercury electrodes, future regulations and occupationalhealth considerations may severely restrict or even banthe use of mercury as an electrode material because of itshigh toxicity. Indeed, mercury compounds that are characterizedby a high toxicity, like mercuric ions (Hg2+) ororganic compounds (e.g., dimethyl mercury), can beformed by immersion of metallic mercury (Hg0) in naturalwaters in the presence of dissolved oxygen or by the meanof bacterial activity. A few years ago, Yosypchuk et al. [16]described the use of ‘‘non-toxic’’ electrodes of solid mercuryamalgams (Ag, Cu, and Au) for stripping analysis.However, despite these electrode materials can be consideredas ‘‘non-toxic’’ for laboratory use, it is not the casefor environmental on-site monitoring. Indeed, mechanicaland/or bacterial corrosion can lead to mercury release fromamalgams, as mercuric ions or metallic mercury.New alternative electrode materials are then highlydesired to develop ‘environmentally friendly’ strippingsensors suitable for on-site heavy metals monitoring.Numerous solid electrode materials, including gold [17],carbon-based [9] or iridium [18], have been tested, buttheir overall performances have never approached thoseof mercury. Recently, Wang et al. [19–21], Hutton et al.[22], Kro´ licka et al. [23] and Baldo et al. [[24] introducedthe use of bismuth thin films, in situ electrodeposited ontoglassy carbon or platinum substrates, for use in strippinganalysis of trace heavy metals. The behaviour of the bismuthfilm electrode (BiFE) was shown to comparefavourably to that of mercury electrodes, with its attractiveproperties including high sensitivity, well-definedstripping signals, good resolution of neighbouring peaks(e.g. Cd, Pb, and Zn), large cathodic potential range,and insensitivity to dissolved oxygen in contrast to mercuryelectrodes. This latter characteristic is an essentialproperty for on-site monitoring. In addition, bismuth isa more ‘environmentally friendly’ material with a low toxicityand is widely used in medicine and cosmetics. However,in situ procedure for BiFE preparation, consisting ofBi3+ addition to the sample and simultaneous depositionof the bismuth film and target metals on the substrate,is not suitable for on-site monitoring. In a previous study[25], we demonstrated that economic bismuth film electrodes(BiFE) prepared by electrodeposition onto a coppersubstrate offer an alternative to mercury electrodesfor anodic stripping analysis of trace heavy metals, suchas cadmium, lead and zinc. In this paper, the applicationof BiFE to trace nickel analysis by the adsorptive strippingvoltammetry (AdSV) technique is presented. BiFEwere prepared by electrodeposition of a thin bismuth filmonto a copper substrate that presents several advantagescompared to platinum and glassy carbon substrates, previouslytested in literature reports. Indeed, copper is ametal far from expensive, easy to manufacture and lendsitself to the realization, by lithography, of microsensorsof various sizes and geometries. It would then be easyto adapt these
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