The reduced short-a system common t

The reduced short-a system common to African American and Hispanic speakers in the lower left corner of Figure 10, with a single /æ/ category, can be viewed in two ways. It may represent the transmission of a prior pattern independent of the traditional Philadelphia system or the result of a gradual diffusion from the Philadelphia system that progressively loses detail. The second possibility aligns the Philadelphia development with the proposed explanation for the origin of the general raising of short-a in the Northern Cities Shift of western New York, as a simplification of the many disparate short-a systems that were brought into contact in the building of the Erie Canal (Labov et al., 2006:216). This calls up a somewhat paradoxical generalization: Faithful transmission preserves the irregularities of a system produced by lexical diffusion, but less faithful diffusion can reduce those irregularities to a more regular phonological pattern. This indeed is what seems to have happened in the diffusion of the New York City short-a system to other regions in the 19th century (Dinkin, 2009; Labov, 2007).



C ONCLU SION

The study of large urban speech communities began with a focus on linguistic differentiation, but as the regularity of social stratification emerged, it gradually became apparent that these cities were united by common patterns of style shifting, reflecting a common set of norms. It also appeared that there was a common structural base for that shifting, with a common definition of the linguistic variables involved. To a surprising extent, these great cities turned out to be geographically uniform, and the local designations such as “Brooklynese” or “South Philadelphia” were actually labels for social class patterns of speech. But that uniformity stops short at racial lines, where we find abrupt discontinuities between Black and White.
Given the fundamentally outward orientation of the language learner (Labov,
2012), the forces that create such deep divisions in the speech community must


indeed be powerful. As we have seen, the major factor that is operating here is the amount of communication across racial lines. African Americans in this city are Philadelphian in many ways. They eat cheese steaks and hoagies, call out “Yo,” and walk on the pavement. Some linguistic features spread easily across the racial lines, in both directions. But the more abstract features do not make this transition. When Whites attempt to mimic African American habitual be, they just get it wrong, saying things like “This be Saturday.” Unless they grew up with black friends, they fail to notice the habitual meaning associated with the invariant form. African Americans who do not come into intimate contacts with Whites until the critical period is past will not even approximate the Philadelphia short-a system. Words and sounds may diffuse from one community to another, but systems do not.

Results (Indonesian) 1:

Mengurangi pendek-a sistem umum untuk African American dan Hispanik speaker di sudut kiri bawah gambar 10, dengan kategori tunggal /æ/, dapat dilihat dalam dua cara. Ini mungkin mewakili transmisi pola sebelumnya yang independen dari sistem Philadelphia tradisional atau hasil dari difusi bertahap dari sistem Filadelfia yang semakin kehilangan detail. Kemungkinan kedua meratakan pembangunan Philadelphia dengan penjelasan diusulkan untuk asal umum meningkatkan pendek-a di pergeseran kota Utara Barat New York, sebagai penyederhanaan dari banyak berbeda pendek-sebuah sistem yang dibawa ke dalam kontak di gedung kanal Erie (Labov et al., 2006:216). Ini panggilan atas yang agak paradoks generalisasi: transmisi setia mempertahankan penyimpangan dari sebuah sistem yang diproduksi oleh difusi leksikal, tapi kurang setia difusi dapat mengurangi orang-orang penyimpangan pola fonologis lebih teratur. Sesungguhnya ini adalah apa yang tampaknya telah terjadi di difusi New York City pendek-a sistem ke daerah lain pada abad ke-19 (Dinkin, 2009; Labov, 2007).C ONCLU SION The study of large urban speech communities began with a focus on linguistic differentiation, but as the regularity of social stratification emerged, it gradually became apparent that these cities were united by common patterns of style shifting, reflecting a common set of norms. It also appeared that there was a common structural base for that shifting, with a common definition of the linguistic variables involved. To a surprising extent, these great cities turned out to be geographically uniform, and the local designations such as “Brooklynese” or “South Philadelphia” were actually labels for social class patterns of speech. But that uniformity stops short at racial lines, where we find abrupt discontinuities between Black and White.Given the fundamentally outward orientation of the language learner (Labov,2012), the forces that create such deep divisions in the speech community must indeed be powerful. As we have seen, the major factor that is operating here is the amount of communication across racial lines. African Americans in this city are Philadelphian in many ways. They eat cheese steaks and hoagies, call out “Yo,” and walk on the pavement. Some linguistic features spread easily across the racial lines, in both directions. But the more abstract features do not make this transition. When Whites attempt to mimic African American habitual be, they just get it wrong, saying things like “This be Saturday.” Unless they grew up with black friends, they fail to notice the habitual meaning associated with the invariant form. African Americans who do not come into intimate contacts with Whites until the critical period is past will not even approximate the Philadelphia short-a system. Words and sounds may diffuse from one community to another, but systems do not.

Results (Indonesian) 2:

Dikurangi pendek sistem umum untuk Afrika Amerika dan Hispanik speaker di sudut kiri bawah Gambar 10, dengan satu / æ / kategori, dapat dilihat dalam dua cara. Ini mungkin merupakan transmisi pola independen sebelum sistem Philadelphia tradisional atau hasil dari difusi bertahap dari sistem Philadelphia yang semakin kehilangan rinci. Kemungkinan kedua sejalan perkembangan Philadelphia dengan penjelasan diusulkan untuk asal-usul kenaikan umum pendek di Utara Kota Pergeseran dari barat New York, sebagai penyederhanaan dari banyak berbeda pendek sebuah sistem yang dibawa ke dalam kontak di pembangunan Erie Canal (Labov dkk, 2006:. 216). Panggilan ini sebuah generalisasi yang agak paradoks: transmisi Setia mempertahankan penyimpangan dari sistem yang dihasilkan oleh difusi leksikal, tetapi kurang difusi yang setia dapat mengurangi penyimpangan mereka ke pola fonologis lebih teratur. Ini memang adalah apa yang tampaknya telah terjadi dalam difusi New York City pendek sistem ke daerah lain di abad ke-19 (Dinkin, 2009; Labov, 2007). C ONCLU SION Studi komunitas pidato perkotaan besar dimulai dengan fokus pada diferensiasi linguistik, tetapi sebagai keteraturan stratifikasi sosial muncul, secara bertahap menjadi jelas bahwa kota-kota ini disatukan oleh pola umum gaya pergeseran, mencerminkan seperangkat norma. Itu juga muncul bahwa ada dasar struktural umum untuk pergeseran itu, dengan definisi umum dari variabel linguistik yang terlibat. Untuk sebagian mengejutkan, kota-kota besar ternyata seragam geografis, dan sebutan lokal seperti "Brooklynese" atau "South Philadelphia" sebenarnya label untuk pola kelas sosial berbicara. Tapi keseragaman yang berhenti sejenak di garis ras, di mana kita menemukan diskontinuitas mendadak antara Hitam dan Putih. Mengingat orientasi fundamental luar dari pelajar bahasa (Labov, 2012), kekuatan yang menciptakan perpecahan mendalam seperti dalam masyarakat tutur harus memang menjadi kuat. Sebagaimana telah kita lihat, faktor utama yang beroperasi di sini adalah jumlah komunikasi lintas ras. Afrika Amerika di kota ini adalah Filadelfia dalam banyak cara. Mereka makan keju steak dan hoagies, memanggil "Yo," dan berjalan di trotoar. Beberapa fitur linguistik menyebar dengan mudah di garis rasial, di kedua arah. Tetapi fitur yang lebih abstrak tidak membuat transisi ini. Ketika Whites mencoba untuk meniru kebiasaan Afrika Amerika menjadi, mereka hanya mendapatkan salah, mengatakan hal-hal seperti "Ini menjadi hari Sabtu." Kecuali mereka tumbuh bersama teman-teman hitam, mereka gagal untuk melihat arti kebiasaan yang berhubungan dengan bentuk invarian. Afrika Amerika yang tidak datang ke kontak intim dengan Whites sampai periode kritis adalah masa lalu bahkan tidak akan mendekati Philadelphia pendek sistem. Kata-kata dan suara dapat menyebar dari satu komunitas ke yang lain, tetapi sistem tidak.