1. Imminent retirement of key perso

1. Imminent retirement of key personnel.
2. Need for innovation to compete in a dynamic, challenging business
environment.
3. Need for internal efficiencies in order to reduce costs and effort (e.g.,
time to market a new product).
The resources and skills required to develop a KM strategy depend on the
size and complexity of the organizational unit and on the depth of information
gathering and analysis. The ideal mix of skills on the KM strategy team
would be a KM expert, access to people who are knowledgeable about the
organization, and a KM advocate who will “sell” the strategy to the senior
member of management who mandated the strategy development.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
A KM strategy is a general, issue-based approach to defining operational
strategy and objectives with specialized KM principles and approaches (Srikantajah
and Koenig, 2000). The result is a way of identifying how the organization
can best leverage its knowledge resources. Once this fundamental KM
strategy is defined, baselining and technology options may be explored. A KM
strategy helps address the following questions:
1. Which KM approach, or set of KM approaches, will bring the most
value to the organization?
2. How can the organization prioritize alternatives when any one or several
of the alternatives are appealing and resources are limited?
Once the KM strategy is defined, the organization will have a road map that
can be used to identify and prioritize KM initiatives, tools, and approaches in
such a way as to support long-term business objectives. The strategy is used
to define a plan of action by undertaking a gap analysis. The gap analysis
involves establishing the current and desired states of knowledge resources and
KM levers. Specific projects are then defined in order to address specific gaps
that were identified and agreed upon as being high-priority areas.
A good KM strategy possesses the following components:
KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 251
1. An articulated business strategy and objectives
a. Products or services.
b. Target customers.
c. Preferred distribution or delivery channels.
d. Characterization of regulatory environment.
e. Mission or vision statement.
2. A description of knowledge-based business issues
a. Need for collaboration.
b. Need to level performance variance.
c. Need for innovation.
d. Need to address information overload.
3. An inventory of available knowledge resources
a. Knowledge capital: tacit and explicit knowledge, know-how, expertise,
experience in the minds of individuals and in communities or
embedded in work routines, processes, procedures, roles, artifacts
such as documents or reports.
b. Social capital: culture, trust, context, the informal networks, and reciprocity
(e.g., willingness to experiment and take risks, or able to fail
without fear of repercussions).
c. Infrastructure capital: physical knowledge resources; e.g., LAN/
WAN, file servers, intranets, PCs, applications, physical workspaces
and offices, and the organizational structure.
4. An analysis of recommended knowledge leverage points that describes
what can be done with the above-identified knowledge and knowledge
artifacts and that lists KM projects that can be undertaken with the
intent to maximize ROI and business value; for example:
a. Collect artifacts and exploit them (e.g., best practices database,
lessons learned database).
b. Store for future use (e.g., data warehouses, intelligence gathering for
specific issue/problem, data mining, text mining).
c. Focus on connecting—connect knowers to each other and to a
problem through communities of practice or expertise location
systems. Hypothesize to carry out scenario planning, informal
cross-pollination to produce new insights and breakthrough
thinking.
The major steps involved in developing a KM strategy are to first understand
the organization in terms of its current state (“as is”) and its desired
business objectives (“to be”). The analysis of the difference between the two
states is often referred to as a gap analysis, and the means of getting from the
“as is” to the “to be” state is often represented in the form of a KM strategic
road map. The road map typically represents a three- to five-year strategy with
clear milestones or targets to be achieved throughout that time.
The current or baseline state of the organization is assessed using information
gathering from a variety of sources such as key documents (e.g., annual
report) and interviewing key stakeholders (e.g., senior managers, human
resources, information technology, and major business unit managers). It is at
252 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
this point that existing KM initiatives will also be identified in the form of a
knowledge audit or inventory.
Knowledge Audit
A knowledge audit service identifies the core information and knowledge
needs and uses in an organization. It also identifies gaps, duplications,
and flows and how they contribute to business goals. A knowledge inventory
(sometimes called an information audit or a knowledge map) is a practical
way of coming to grips with “knowing what you know.” This inventory is
usually performed by applying the principles of information resources management
(IRM). A knowledge audit identifies owners, users, uses, and key
attributes of core knowledge assets. Willard (1993) discusses five key activities
of IRM:
1. Identification: What information is there? How is it identified and
coded?
2. Ownership: Who is responsible for different information entities and
coordination?
3. Cost and Value: What is a basic model for making judgments on purchase
and use?
4. Development: How can we increase the value of information or stimulate
demand?
5. Exploitation: What is the best way to proactively maximize the value
for money?
A knowledge audit is often carried out in conjunction with a knowledge
management assessment, which provides a baseline on which one can develop
a knowledge management strategy (Skyrme, 2001). This typically involves
taking stock of current KM capabilities and is often carried out as part of a
KM strategy formulation exercise.
A knowledge audit can produce the following types of results:
_ Identification of core knowledge assets and flows—who creates, who
uses.
_ Identification of gaps in information and knowledge needed to manage the
business effectively.
_ Areas of information policy and ownership that need improving.
_ Opportunities to reduce information-handling costs.
_ Opportunities to improve coordination and access to commonly needed
information.
_ A clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to business
results.
An example from Northrop-Grumman is provided in the accompanying
vignette.
KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 253
254 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
NORTHROP-GRUMMAN
Northrop-Grumman2 faced consolidation and downsizing during the late
1990s. The Air Combat Systems (ACS) group in particular was in danger
of losing the expertise it needed to support and maintain a complex machine
that would be flying—carrying precious lives and cargo—for years to come.
So ACS instituted KM procedures designed to capture the so-called tacit
knowledge, or know-how and experience, with the B-2, locked in its employees’
heads. But before designing a program, ACS wanted to find out what
barriers, if any, prevented employees from sharing knowledge with their
peers. With a good picture of knowledge culture attitudes, ACS would then
have a better road map for designing a unitwide KM program. It conducted
a knowledge audit, surveying employees about their knowledge-sharing
habits, polling nearly 5000 employees with a 97-question survey (KM2) to
determine their knowledge needs, sharing practices, and prejudices. The
survey asked questions such as, “From your perspective, to what extent is
the knowledge that you and your team generate reused by other teams?”
This not only highlighted ACS’s readiness for a formal KM effort but also
pointed out areas where sharing was not happening. The Delphi Group was
hired to conduct the audit and derive a baseline pulse of the unit’s
knowledge-sharing culture. Participation was voluntary—employees were
given a free lunch for giving 30 minutes of their time. The survey response
rate was better than 70% (typically, mail-in surveys return a 10–30%
response). Delphi consultants analyzed the preliminary results and targeted
125 employees for face-to-face follow-up interviews.
ACS had established a 10-person KM team to identify subject matter
experts and capture the content of their expertise. After creating about 100
knowledge cells and identifying 200 subject matter experts within those cells,
the KM council turned its attention to knowledge capture. The team created
websites for each knowledge cell and logged information about the knowledge
experts into an expert locator system called Xref, short for crossreference.
Using Xref, employees can search for information in any number
of ways, including by employee name, program affiliation, or skill area. If,
for example, the B-2 landing gear is locking up, one can find the landing
gear expert through Xref. The knowledge audit helped ensure that this centralized
database not only would be useful but would actually be used.
The results of the knowledge audit confirmed that employees were eager
to share their knowledge in an automated, centralized system but that challenges,
such as integrating the systems across lines of business, remained.
The willingness of employees to participate in systems intended to minimize
the impact of their own eventual layoff is, of course, highly dubious. Other
key findings showed that employees recognized the value of their fellow
employees’ expertise; they spent at least eight frustrating hours each week
looking for information they needed to do their job (costing $150 million
annually); only 6% of their knowledge was reused by others; and 31%
NORTHROP-GRUMMAN—Continued
A knowledge management program or sys

Results (English) 1:

1. Imminent retirement of key personnel.2. Need for innovation to compete in a dynamic, challenging businessenvironment.3. Need for internal efficiencies in order to reduce costs and effort (e.g.,time to market a new product).The resources and skills required to develop a KM strategy depend on thesize and complexity of the organizational unit and on the depth of informationgathering and analysis. The ideal mix of skills on the KM strategy teamwould be a KM expert, access to people who are knowledgeable about theorganization, and a KM advocate who will "sell" the strategy to the seniormember of management who mandated the strategy development.KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT STRATEGYA KM strategy is a general, issue-based approach to defining operationalstrategy and objectives with specialized KM principles and approaches (Srikantajahand Koenig, 2000). The result is a way of identifying how the organizationcan best leverage its knowledge resources. Once this fundamental KMstrategy is defined, baselining and technology options may be explored. A KMstrategy helps address the following questions:1. Which KM approach, or set of KM approaches, will bring the mostvalue to the organization?2. How can the organization prioritize alternatives when any one or severalof the alternatives are appealing and resources are limited?Once the KM strategy is defined, the organization will have a road map thatcan be used to identify and prioritize KM initiatives, tools, and approaches insuch a way as to support long-term business objectives. The strategy is usedto define a plan of action by undertaking a gap analysis. The gap analysisinvolves establishing the current and desired states of knowledge resources andKM levers. Specific projects are then defined in order to address specific gapsthat were identified and agreed upon as being high-priority areas.A good KM strategy possesses the following components:KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 2511. An articulated business strategy and objectivesa. Products or services.b. Target customers.c. Preferred distribution or delivery channels.d. Characterization of regulatory environment.e. Mission or vision statement.2. A description of knowledge-based business issuesa. Need for collaboration.b. Need to level performance variance.c. Need for innovation.d. Need to address information overload.3. An inventory of available knowledge resourcesa. Knowledge capital: tacit and explicit knowledge, know-how, expertise,experience in the minds of individuals and in communities orembedded in work routines, processes, procedures, roles, artifactssuch as documents or reports.b. Social capital: culture, trust, context, the informal networks, and reciprocity(e.g., willingness to experiment and take risks, or able to failwithout fear of repercussions).c. Infrastructure capital: physical knowledge resources; e.g., LAN/WAN, file servers, intranets, PCs, applications, physical workspacesand offices, and the organizational structure.4. An analysis of recommended knowledge leverage points that describeswhat can be done with the above-identified knowledge and knowledgeartifacts and that lists KM projects that can be undertaken with theintent to maximize ROI and business value; for example:a. Collect artifacts and exploit them (e.g., best practices database,lessons learned database).b. Store for future use (e.g., data warehouses, intelligence gathering forspecific issue/problem, data mining, text mining).c. Focus on connecting—connect knowers to each other and to aproblem through communities of practice or expertise locationsystems. Hypothesize to carry out scenario planning, informalcross-pollination to produce new insights and breakthroughthinking.The major steps involved in developing a KM strategy are to first understandthe organization in terms of its current state ("as is") and its desiredbusiness objectives ("to be"). The analysis of the difference between the twostates is often referred to as a gap analysis, and the means of getting from the"as is" to the "to be" state is often represented in the form of a KM strategicroad map. The road map typically represents a three-to five-year strategy withclear milestones or targets to be achieved throughout that time.The current or baseline state of the organization is assessed using informationgathering from a variety of sources such as key documents (e.g., annualreport) and interviewing key stakeholders (e.g., senior managers, humanresources, information technology, and major business unit managers). It is at252 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICEthis point that existing KM initiatives will also be identified in the form of aknowledge audit or inventory.Knowledge AuditA knowledge audit service identifies the core information and knowledgeneeds and uses in an organization. It also identifies gaps, duplications,and flows and how they contribute to business goals. A knowledge inventory(sometimes called an information audit or a knowledge map) is a practicalway of coming to grips with "knowing what you know." This inventory isusually performed by applying the principles of information resources management(IRM). A knowledge audit identifies owners, users, uses, and keyattributes of core knowledge assets. Willard (1993) discusses five key activitiesof IRM:1. Identification: What information is there? How is it identified andcoded?2. Ownership: Who is responsible for different information entities andcoordination?3. Cost and Value: What is a basic model for making judgments on purchaseand use?4. Development: How can we increase the value of information or stimulatedemand?5. Exploitation: What is the best way to proactively maximize the valuefor money?A knowledge audit is often carried out in conjunction with a knowledgemanagement assessment, which provides a baseline on which one can developa knowledge management strategy (Skyrme, 2001). This typically involvestaking stock of current KM capabilities and is often carried out as part of aKM strategy formulation exercise.A knowledge audit can produce the following types of results:_ Identification of core knowledge assets and flows—who creates, whouses._ Identification of gaps in information and knowledge needed to manage thebusiness effectively._ Areas of information policy and ownership that need improving._ Opportunities to reduce information-handling costs._ Opportunities to improve coordination and access to commonly neededinformation._ A clearer understanding of the contribution of knowledge to businessresults.An example from Northrop-Grumman is provided in the accompanyingvignette.KM STRATEGY AND METRICS 253254 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN THEORY AND PRACTICENORTHROP-GRUMMANNorthrop-Grumman2 faced consolidation and downsizing during the late1990s. The Air Combat Systems (ACS) group in particular was in dangerof losing the expertise it needed to support and maintain a complex machinethat would be flying—carrying precious lives and cargo—for years to come.So ACS instituted KM procedures designed to capture the so-called tacitknowledge, or know-how and experience, with the B-2, locked in its employees 'heads. But before designing a program, ACS wanted to find out whatbarriers, if any, prevented employees from sharing knowledge with theirpeers. With a good picture of knowledge culture attitudes, ACS would thenhave a better road map for designing a unitwide KM program. It conducteda knowledge audit, surveying employees about their knowledge-sharinghabits, polling nearly 5000 employees with a 97-question survey (KM2) todetermine their knowledge needs, sharing practices, and prejudices. Thesurvey asked questions such as, "From your perspective, to what extent isthe knowledge that you and your team generate reused by other teams? "This not only highlighted ACS's readiness for a formal KM effort but alsopointed out areas where sharing was not happening. The Delphi Group washired to conduct the audit and derive a baseline pulse of the unit'sknowledge-sharing culture. Participation was voluntary—employees weregiven a free lunch for giving 30 minutes of their time. The survey responserate was better than 70% (typically, mail-in surveys return a 10–30%response). Delphi consultants analyzed the preliminary results and targeted125 employees for face-to-face follow-up interviews.ACS had established a 10-person KM team to identify subject matterexperts and capture the content of their expertise. After creating about 100knowledge cells and identifying to subject matter experts within those cells,the KM council turned its attention to knowledge capture. The team createdwebsites for each knowledge cell and logged information about the knowledgeexperts into an expert locator system called Xref, short for crossreference.Using Xref, employees can search for information in any numberof ways, including by employee name, program affiliation, or skill area. If,for example, the B-2 landing gear is locking up, one can find the landinggear expert through Xref. The knowledge audit helped ensure that this centralizeddatabase not only would be useful but would actually be used.The results of the knowledge audit confirmed that employees were eagerto share their knowledge in an automated, centralized system but that challenges,such as integrating the systems across lines of business, remained.The willingness of employees to participate in systems intended to minimizethe impact of their own eventual layoff is, of course, highly dubious. Otherkey findings showed that employees recognized the value of their fellowemployees ' expertise; they spent at least eight frustrating hours each weeklooking for information they needed to do their job (costing $150 millionannually); only 6s of their knowledge was reused by others; and 31%NORTHROP-GRUMMAN—ContinuedA knowledge management program or sys

Results (English) 3:

1。迫在眉睫的关键人员退休
2。创新竞争中的一个动态的需要，具有挑战性的业务环境

3。为了内部效率降低成本和精力需要（例如，
上市时间新产品）。
的资源和技能发展所需的知识管理战略依赖
大小和组织单元的复杂性和深度信息
收集和分析。技巧的知识管理战略团队
理想搭配将KM专家，访问的人谁是对组织知识和公里
，主张谁会“卖”策略的高级管理人员谁授权
发展战略。一公里
战略是一个通用的知识管理战略
，基于问题的方法来定义操作
战略和目标与专业化知识管理的原则和方法（srikantajah
和Koenig，2000）。结果是一种识别组织如何能最好地利用其知识资源
。一旦这个基本公里
策略定义，基线和技术选择可以探索。一公里
策略有助于解决以下问题：
1。KM方法，或一套KM的方法，会给组织带来最
价值？
2。如何组织优先的选择时，任何一个或几个
的替代品的吸引力和资源是有限的？
一旦知识管理战略的定义，该组织将有一个路线图，
可以用来识别和区分知识管理的举措，工具，和方法
这样的方式来支持长期业务目标。使用策略
进行差距分析，确定行动计划。差距分析
涉及建立电流和所需的知识资源和
公里杠杆状态。具体项目是指为解决具体的差距
被确定和商定为高优先领域。
好公里策略具有以下组件：
知识管理策略和度量251
1。一个清晰的业务策略和目标
A.产品或服务的目标客户。
B。C优先分配或交付渠道

。监管环境D.表征。
E.使命或愿景声明
2。描述知识的业务问题
A.需要合作。B.需要水平方差
。
C.需要创新。
D.需要解决信息过载
3。一个可用的知识资源和知识资本存量
：隐性和显性知识，知识，专业知识，在个人的头脑和

嵌入在社区或工作程序，过程，程序，角色经验，文物
如文件或报告。
B.社会资本：文化，信任，背景下，非正式的网络，互惠
（例如，愿意尝试并承担风险，或能够在没有恐惧的反响失败

）。C.基础设施资本：物理知识资源；例如，局域网/广域网
，文件服务器，内部网，电脑，应用，物理工作区
和办公室，和组织结构
4。推荐知识杠杆点，描述了一个分析
有什么可以做的与上述确定的知识和知识
文物和列出公里的项目，可以进行与
意图最大的投资回报率和商业价值；例如：
收集文物和利用它们（例如，最佳实践数据库，
教训数据库）。B
储备（例如，数据仓库，为特定的问题/问题
情报收集，数据挖掘，文本挖掘）。集中于连接连接
C.他们彼此一个问题通过实践或

社区专家定位系统。假设进行情景规划，非正式
异花授粉产生新的见解和突破
思维。
参与公里发展战略的主要步骤是先了解
在其当前状态方面的组织（“是”），其所需的
业务目标（“是”）。这两
状态之间的差异的分析通常称为差距分析，方法，从“是”
对“是”的状态通常是在一公里的战略路线图的形式表示
。道路地图通常代表一三到五年战略
清晰的里程碑或要达到的目标在这段时间。
电流或基线的组织状态是利用从各种来源收集信息，如关键文件（例如，年度

评估报告）和面试的关键利益相关者（例如，高级管理人员，人类
资源，信息技术，和主要业务单位的经理）。它是在
252知识管理在理论和实践这一点，现有公里
举措也将在一个
知识审计或库存的形式确定。
知识审计知识审计服务标识
核心信息和知识的需求和使用在一个组织
。它还确定了差距，重复，
流以及它们如何有助于企业目标。一个知识库存
（有时称为信息审计或知识地图）是一种实用
方式来对付“知道你所知道的。“这是库存
通常利用信息资源管理（IRM）
原则进行。知识审计确定业主，用户，使用，和关键
核心知识资产的属性。威拉德（1993）探讨了五个关键活动
IRM：
1。识别：什么样的信息呢？它是如何确定和
编码？
2。所有权：谁负责不同的信息实体和
协调？
3。成本与价值：为使购买和使用判断
基本模型是什么？
4。发展：我们如何增加信息的价值或刺激
需求？
5。开发：主动最大化货币价值
最好的方式是什么？
知识审计通常是和一个知识
管理评估一起进行，它提供了一个基准，其中一个可以发展
知识管理战略（Skyrme，2001）。这通常涉及
以目前的知识管理能力的股票，往往是进行的知识管理战略制定
运动的一部分。
知识审计可以产生下列结果：核心知识资产和流动
_识别谁创造，谁在使用

。需要有效地管理企业信息和知识差距_

鉴定。信息政策和所有权需要提高_地区。
_机会减少信息处理成本。机会改善协调和
_访问常用

_信息。一个比较清晰的认识，知识对企业的贡献

结果。从诺斯洛普格鲁曼公司的一个例子是在伴随

的小插曲。知识管理的策略和指标253
254知识管理在理论和实践中面临整合和
northrop-grumman
northrop-grumman2裁员晚
九十年。空中作战系统（ACS）集团特别是危险
失去专长需要支持和维护一个复杂的机器，会飞
携带宝贵的生命和货物来
。因此ACS提起公里程序设计捕获所谓隐性
知识，或知识和经验，与B-2，锁定在其员工
头。但在设计一个程序，ACS想找出
壁垒，如果任何，防止员工与他们的同行分享知识
。一个良好的知识文化态度的图片，ACS将
有一个程序设计更好unitwide公里道路地图。
进行知识审计，调查员工对知识共享
习惯，投票近5000名员工，有97个问题的调查（平方公里）来确定他们的知识需求
，共享的做法，和偏见。
调查问的问题如，“从你的角度来看，到什么程度是
知道你和你的团队产生的其他团队使用？“这不仅突出
ACS的准备正式公里的努力而且
指出地区共享是不会发生的。Delphi组
雇佣进行审核并获得该单位的知识共享文化基线脉冲
。自愿参加的员工
给自己30分钟的时间给一个免费的午餐。调查的回应率高于70%
（通常，邮件调查中返回一个10响应30%
–）。专家顾问分析的初步结果，针对125名员工进行面对面访谈

ACS。建立了一个10人公里的团队确定主题
专家和捕捉他们的知识内容。在创建100
知识细胞识别在这些细胞200主题专家，
KM委员会转向关注知识的获取。团队创建的每个知识单元
网站和登录信息的知识
专家进入专家定位系统称为外部参照，简称交叉参考。使用XRef
，员工可以搜索任何数量
信息的方式，包括员工姓名，计划联系，或技巧。如果，例如B-2
，起落架锁定，你可以通过此找到着陆
齿轮专家。知识审计帮助确保这种集中式数据库不仅
会有用但实际上可以用的知识。
审计证实员工急于
结果在一个自动化的分享他们的知识，集中的系统，但面临的挑战，如整合
跨业务线，系统保持。
职工参加旨在减少
自己最终裁员的影响系统的意愿，当然，是非常可疑的。其他主要调查结果表明，员工
价值认同他们的同胞
员工专业知识；他们花了至少八小时每星期沮丧
寻找他们需要做他们的工作的信息（150000000美元每年只有6%
）；知识重用的人；31%诺斯洛普Grumman

持续的知识管理程序或系统