Figure 1 - Teacher competences: a f

Figure 1 - Teacher competences: a fractal view (Caena & Margiotta, 2008; Paquay & Wagner, 2001)

Teacher expertise and the development of competences

39 Professional learning is a continuum starting in initial teacher education, carrying on through the induction phase and continuing throughout the rest of the career; in this context an issue for stakeholders and decision-makers concerns the possibility of reaching broad consensus on competence descriptions that span different levels of teacher expertise. Key aspects are:

• constant reflection in order to update practice, and

• membership of a professional community – a researcher, a receiver of feedback from colleagues, an innovator, an active collaborator of colleagues and principal (OECD, 2009).

40 Key features of teacher expertise, according to the literature, include:

• routinisation – i.e. the development of patterns of action and teaching repertoires;

domain- and subject-specific expertise in recognising patterns (recurring situations) in the complexity of classroom life;

• sensitivity to social demands and dynamics in the classroom;

• understanding problems;

• flexibility and improvisation;

critical examination of one's professional practice (in school and national contexts, as well as in professional dialogues) (European Commission, 2011b).

14



41 Two basic requirements are fundamental in the preparation of quality teachers:

• the capacity to systematically assess one’s own knowledge base and professional practices, on the basis of a wide range of criteria coming from practice, theory and research; and

• critical and responsive attitudes to innovation and professional improvement (Hagger & McIntyre, 2006).

42 The research suggests that the development of teacher expertise is quite slow, requiring at least three to five years; it implies teaching as a reflexive, purposeful practice and high quality feedback. The complex, mostly tacit nature of teacher’s practical thinking entails elaborate cognitive processes for professional knowledge to develop (Hagger & McIntyre, 2006).

Competences and professional standards

43 A distinction needs to be made between definitions of teacher competences and professional standards. A professional standard endeavours to describe what teachers believe, know, understand and are able to do as specialist practitioners in their fields (Ingvarson, 1998). In particular, professional standards for teachers focus on what teachers are expected to know and be able to do. They are usually concerned with accountability and quality mechanisms, and are closely linked with the action of institutional and professional bodies. They can be defined as:

• shared representations of visions of practice, i.e. means for describing a consensus model of what is most valued in teaching knowledge and practice;

• measuring tools for professional judgement , i.e. tools for making judgements and decisions in the context of shared meanings and values (Sykes and Plastrik, 1993), and/or instruments for providing specifications of levels of achievement (Kleinhenz & Ingvarson, 2007).

44 The purposes of professional standards can vary, according to the prevailing focus on one or more of the following aspects:

• information: they can be used as signals conveying information on teacher action and behaviour to diverse social groups

• guidance: as principles directing the action of institutional and professional stakeholders

• modelling: as model examples representing ideals of professional quality and practice for teachers, along different career stages

• management: as uniform measures for relationships/transactions in teaching, teacher education and professional development

• monitoring: as rules to be checked for compliance, by institutional and professional bodies.

45 The degrees of precision and prescriptiveness of standards can vary according to their subjects and uses. Since standards usually refer to systems of meanings and values as authority sources, standard setting entails creating political and technical consensus.

Results (English) 3:

图1教师能力：分形观（caena&Margiotta，2008 paquay&；瓦格纳，2001）

教师专业知识和发展能力

39专业的学习是一个连续的起点在教师职前教育，进行通过诱导期和继续在余下的职业生涯；在这方面的问题，利益相关者和决策者的可能性达成广泛共识的能力描述，跨越不同层次的教师专业知识。关键方面是：为了更新实践，不断地思考，并为一个专业团体的成员--一个研究者，一个来自同事，一个创新的反馈的接受者，同事和校长积极的合作者（OECD，2009）。

40主要特点的教师专业知识，根据文献，包括：

•routinisation–即动作的教学过程模式的发展；在识别模式

域和特定学科的专业知识（经常性的情况下）在课堂生活的复杂性；

•灵敏度在课堂社会需求和动力；

•理解问题；

•灵活性和即兴创作；

关键检查你的专业实践（在学校和国家的情况，以及在专业对话）（欧洲委员会，2011B）。41个基本的要求是编制质量教师的基本要求：14•系统地评估自己的知识基础和专业实践能力，对各种来自实践标准的基础上，理论和研究；并

•关键和敏感的对创新的态度和专业的改进（哈格&麦金泰尔，2006）。42的研究表明，教师专业发展的发展是相当缓慢的，要求至少三至五年，它意味着教学作为一个反思，有目的的实践和高品质的反馈。复杂的，教师的实践思维是默契自然需要复杂认知过程的专业知识的发展（哈格&麦金泰尔，2006）。能力和专业标准43教师能力和专业标准的定义之间的区别。专业标准的努力描述教师相信，知道，理解并能够做在他们的领域的专家医生（因格瓦森，1998）。特别是，教师的专业标准，专注于教师的预期，知道，并能够做到。他们通常关心的是问责和质量机制，并与机构和专业机构的行动密切相关。它们可以被定义为：“”，共享的实践的陈述，即是指描述一个共识的模式，什么是最有价值的教学知识和实践，为专业判断，即测量工具，即在共享的意义和价值的语境判断与决策工具（赛克斯和普拉斯特里克，1993），和/或仪器提供的成就水平的规格（Kleinhenz&因格瓦森，2007）。44职业标准的目的可以根据不同的情况，根据一个或多个以下方面的普遍关注：他们可以被用来作为信号传递信息的教师行为和行为，以不同的社会团体的指导原则：作为原则指导的行动的机构和专业的利益相关者的行为，如代表理想的专业素质和实践的教师，在不同的职业阶段：在教学中，教师教育和专业发展中的关系/交易的统一措施。

45度的精度和规范性标准可以根据对象不同和用途。由于标准通常指的是系统的意义和价值的权威来源，标准的设置需要创造政治和技术的共识。